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In a research study, participants were played a series of tones. The participants were asked to press a button following each tone presentation to indicate they heard the tone. During the session, the tones became increasingly quieter in order for the researcher to determine the quietest tone participants could detect 50% of the time. The study most directly explores the concept of
| A. stimulus generalization | |
| B. the difference threshold | |
| C. the absolute threshold | |
| D. sensory adaptation |
Explanation
In the 1800s, researchers investigated how sensation could be altered by varying the intensity of a stimulus.
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The difference threshold (or just-noticeable difference) is the point at which an individual can detect a difference between two stimuli (eg, in the loudness of two sounds) 50% of the time (Choice B).
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The absolute threshold is the point at which an individual can detect a new sensation (eg, hear a quiet tone) 50% of the time.
Therefore, a study to determine the quietest tone participants could detect 50% of the time most directly explores the absolute threshold.
(Choice A) In operant conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus (eg, cereal) similar to the original stimulus (eg, cat food) evokes the same response (eg, a cat runs to the food bowl).
(Choice D) Sensory adaptation occurs when the constant presence of a sensory stimulus (eg, garbage smell) causes sensory receptor cells to send fewer messages to the brain about that stimulus (eg, being less able to detect a strong garbage smell over time).
Things to remember:
The difference threshold (or just-noticeable difference) is the point at which an individual can detect a difference between two stimuli (eg, in the loudness of two sounds) 50% of the time. The absolute threshold is the point at which an individual can detect a new sensation (eg, see a light in the distance) 50% of the time.
Proprioceptors are found in which of the following structures?
| A. retina | |
| B. basilar membrane | |
| C. joints, tendons, and muscles | |
| D. taste buds on the surface of the tongue |
Explanation
The kinesthetic sense is awareness of body position and movement (eg, knowing where your outstretched arm is without looking).
In the kinesthetic process, somatosensory receptors called proprioceptors, located in skin, joints, tendons, and muscles, respond to stretching or movement. Afferent sensory neurons relay information from the proprioceptors to the somatosensory cortex in the brain's parietal lobe, enabling awareness of body position and movement.
Therefore, proprioceptors are found in joints, tendons, and muscles.
(Choice A) Photoreceptors (rods and cones), not proprioceptors, are found in the retina and contribute to vision.
(Choice B) Auditory receptors, not proprioceptors, are found in the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contribute to the auditory sense (hearing).
(Choice D) Taste receptors, not proprioceptors, are found in taste buds on the surface of the tongue and contribute to the sense of taste.
Things to remember:
The kinesthetic sense is the awareness of body position and movement (eg, knowing where your outstretched arm is without looking). Proprioceptors, which are found in skin, joints, tendons, and muscles, respond to stretching or movement to enable the kinesthetic sense.
A psychologist conducts a study on visual perception in which individuals are shown various photographs. When viewing a photograph of a football game, the participants tend to perceive the players as groups based on the color of their uniforms, such as the "blue team" and the "white team." The Gestalt perceptual principle the participants are exhibiting is called
| A. closure | |
| B. figure and ground | |
| C. similarity | |
| D. proximity |
Explanation
The Gestalt principles of perceptual organization describe how humans perceive sensory stimuli as a whole greater than the sum of their parts. Gestalt principles apply to many types of sensory stimuli (eg, the grouping of musical tones) but are most often used to describe the perception of visual stimuli.
The Gestalt principle of similarity refers to the tendency to group together objects that share similar features (eg, shape, color).
Therefore, when the participants group players in a photograph by shared visual characteristics (ie, their uniform color), the Gestalt perceptual principle they are exhibiting is called similarity.
(Choice A) Closure is the tendency to perceive a whole object by filling in gaps.
(Choice B) Figure and ground refers to the tendency to perceive objects (ie, figures) as distinct from a background (ie, the ground).
(Choice D) Proximity is the tendency to perceive things that are physically closer to one another as a group (eg, letters that are closer together are grouped as a word).
Things to remember:
The Gestalt principles of perceptual organization describe how humans perceive sensory stimuli as a whole. For example, in the similarity principle, objects that share similar characteristics (eg, color) tend to be grouped together.
The term perceptual set refers to
| A. the tendency to perceive an object as unchanging in size despite changing distance | |
| B. when people assume two objects are a similar size and view the smaller one as being farther away | |
| C. the tendency to focus on certain details of a stimulus while overlooking other details | |
| D. the informal, unspoken, agreed-upon standards for showing emotion in a culture |
Explanation
A perceptual set describes the tendency to focus on certain details of a stimulus while overlooking other details. Numerous factors such as culture, experiences, mood, and expectations can influence one's perceptual set.
For example, when viewing a movie about the Revolutionary War, a theater major and a history major might focus on different aspects of the movie (eg, acting versus historical inaccuracies, respectively).
Therefore, the term perceptual set refers to the tendency to focus on certain details of a stimulus while overlooking other details.
(Choice A) Size constancy is a visual depth cue that results in an object appearing to not change size despite changing distance (eg, a bird flying away doesn't appear to shrink).
(Choice B) Relative size is a monocular depth cue wherein if an individual assumes that two objects are a similar size, then the one that appears smaller is perceived as further away.
(Choice D) Display rules a culture's unspoken guidelines for appropriate emotional expression in a given context (eg, American men are "allowed" to show anger but cannot cry in public).
Things to remember:
A perceptual set, which can be influenced by culture, experiences, mood, and expectations, describes the tendency to focus on certain details of a stimulus while overlooking other details.
Neuron A (the presynaptic neuron) releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, which leads to the firing of Neuron B (the postsynaptic neuron). In this scenario, the correct sequence of structures involved in Neuron B firing is
| A. dendrites → axon → soma → axon terminals | |
| B. dendrites → soma → axon → axon terminals | |
| C. axon → axon terminal → soma → dendrites | |
| D. axon terminals → axon → soma → dendrites |
Explanation
Most communication between neurons involves the release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) into the synaptic cleft (the space between neurons).
In this scenario, release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft by Neuron A (the sending, presynaptic neuron) leads to the firing of Neuron B (the receiving, postsynaptic neuron). The sequence of structures involved in Neuron B firing includes:
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Dendrites: Neurotransmitters released from Neuron A first bind to receptors on the dendrites of Neuron B, altering the electrical charge of Neuron B's membrane.
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Soma (cell body): The change in electrical charge of the membrane spreads to the soma. If the charge of the membrane meets a certain threshold, Neuron B generates an electrical action potential (ie, fires).
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Axon: The action potential (sequence of shifts in the electrical charge of the membrane) travels down the axon to the axon terminal.
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Axon terminals: From the axon terminals, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft to communicate with the next neuron(s).
Therefore, the sequence of structures involved in Neuron B's firing is dendrites → soma → axon → axon terminals. Any other order for these structures is incorrect (Choices A, C, and D).
Things to remember:
The presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron's dendrites, altering the electrical charge of the neuron's membrane, which spreads to the soma. If the charge of the membrane meets a certain threshold, an action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminal, causing neurotransmitter release.
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